ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK - Deneme Sınavı - 10

Members of OPEC (as of March 2019): Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), Gabon (1975), Angola (2007), Equatorial Guinea (2017), Congo (2018). Therefore, the correct option is C.

UNECE was set up in 1947 by ECOSOC. UNECE is “one of five regional commissions of the United Nations. UNECE’s major aim is to promote pan-European economic integration” (www.unece. org). UNECE’s work on sustainable energy is designed to improve access to affordable and clean energy for all and help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the carbon footprint of the energy sector in the region. Therefore, the correct option is D.

The International Energy Charter is a “declaration of political intention aiming at strengthening energy cooperation between the signatory states;” however, the Charter “does not bear any legally binding obligation or financial commitment. It maps out common principles for international cooperation in the field of energy. The International Energy Charter reflects some of the most topical energy challenges of the 21st century, in particular: The International Energy Charter is a “declaration of political intention aiming at strengthening energy cooperation between the signatory states;” however, the Charter “does not bear any legally binding obligation or financial commitment. It maps out common principles for international cooperation in the field of energy. The International Energy Charter reflects some of the most topical energy challenges of the 21st century, in particular: 

• “the growing weight of developing countries for global energy security,

• the “trilemma” between energy security, economic development and environmental protection,

• the role of enhanced energy trade for sustainable development,

• the need to promote access to modern energy services, energy poverty reduction, clean technology and capacity building,

• the need for diversification of energy sources and routes,

• the role of regional integration of energy markets” (International Energy Charter, 2016).

Therefore, the correct option is E.

Security dilemma is another key feature of the competitive international system. Security dilemma refers to a condition in which actions taken by one actor to improve its national security are interpreted as aggressive/offensive by other actors, thereby provoking military counter-moves (Griffiths, O’Callaghan, and Roach, 2008: 295; Heywood, 2011: 19).

When states attempt to balance threats by an increase of their national capabilities, this is called internal balancing. Alternatively, when they try to balance against a prevailing threat by the establishment of informal or formal alliances with other states, this is known as external balancing (Grieco, 1997: 160).

Through internal and external efforts, a state can either increase its own capacity or impair that of its rival. While the former is called positive balancing, the latter is negative balancing (Steff and Khoo, 2014: 2227-228). One can make
another distinction between hard balancing and soft balancing. States use mainly their military and economic capacities in hard balancing, whereas soft balancing suggests the use of diplomatic and cultural means, which are the soft power resources (Fortmann, Paul and Wirtz, 2004: 362-365; Paul, 2004: 3; Pape, 2005: 9-10).

An alignment is considered as any general commitment between states in order to achieve mutual security goals. Its objectives are cooperation and collaboration that are broad and vague rather than narrow and explicit (Krause and Singer, 2001: 16; Snyder, 1990: 105). A coalition is characterized by the commitment of two or more states to coordinate their behavior and policies in order to perform particular functions or pursue specific goals. It is often formed during a war (Snyder, 1990: 106).

Within the balance of power politics, there is another strategy employed by states; bandwagoning. Bandwagoning refers to aligning with or joining the powerful actor toward protecting itself from fear and attack, even if this means insecurity and a certain sacrifice from its independence. In fact one can differentiate between two types of bandwagoning: defensive and offensive. In defensive bandwagoning, which is a form of appeasement, a state aligns with a threatening power to avoid being attacked. Offensive bandwagoning is alignment with a dominant state for the payoffs.

Alliances are arrangements between states and, in some cases, independent authorities other than states.

Alliances are explicit agreements. Nevertheless, explicitness of an alliance agreement does not necessarily mean that the agreement is made by a formal treaty and declared to other states and registered with the United Nations.

General commitments such as the League of Nations, the United Nations, or their affiliated specialized agencies and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) are not considered formal military alliances.

The arrangements for mutual security and general defense cooperation like the US-Turkey Defense and Economic Cooperation, which deals exclusively with bases, military aid, financial aid, and training programs, are not considered as alliances (Krause
and Singer, 2001).

Alliances contribute to the national security of states. Alliances provide states an air of seriousness that clearly distinguishes them from agreements in other areas of foreign policy, such as finance or commerce.

Wartime alliances are, in fact, generally established in peacetime to prevent, or prevail in, a possible future war.

Peacetime alliances are just formal or informal agreements between two or more states intended to further the national security of the participating states, operating when the signatories are not at war. If war begins and the alliance does not dissolve, it turns into a wartime alliance.

A defense pact requires its signatories to intervene with military force on behalf of any alliance partner(s) engaged in armed hostilities.

A Nonaggression pact is an alliance whose signatories pledge not to resort to military action against other pact signatories.

A neutrality pact includes a promise to avoid supporting another country, which may act against the interests of any of the pact signatories.

First of all, an alliance contributes to the balance of power in a given setting. Defensive alliances deter aggressive states from using military force.

A formal military alliance such as NATO usually has the purpose of collective defense, where its members pool their capabilities and launch a collective effort to protect one another against a potential outside aggressor.

Moreover, alliances help contain potential rivals. For example, the US has benefited from the alliances to contain the Soviet Union (later Russia), China, Iran, and other states that are perceived to be threatening the American political, military, and economic interests. Alliances also provide the means to keep the allies under control through restricting their interaction with potential rivals.

Furthermore, alliances enhance the military power of its members. The military strength of an alliance naturally enhances the national power in terms of personnel, military equipment, defense spending, high technology, intelligence sharing, and financial resources.

Finally, alliances provide the members with cost-effective options in pursuing national security interests through pooling the military capabilities and sharing the financial burdens. Otherwise, the members would be forced to extensively increase their defense spending and conscript many people that may ultimately strain the workforce. For minor powers, alliances have increasingly become a means not only to acquire essential military benefits but also to achieve various nonmilitary objectives such as diplomatic support, technology transfer, economic aid, and trade privileges.

During the heyday of the Cold War (roughly between 1949 and 1962), NATO followed the strategic doctrine of Massive Retaliation. According to which, if a power (read it as the Soviet Union) launches an attack on the alliance members, NATO would respond with nuclear weapons, no matter what the nature of the first attack was. Scholars and NATO officials claimed that the strategy of Massive Retaliation allowed the members of the alliance to focus their energies on economic growth rather than on maintaining large conventional armies.

NATO aims at guaranteeing the freedom and security of its members through political and military means.NATO is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management operations.

NATO is committed to the principle that an attack against one or several of its members is considered as an attack against all. This is the principle of collective defense

A “NATO decision” is the expression of the collective will of all 29 member countries since all decisions are taken by consensus.

Members can bring any issue of concern, especially related to the security of a member country.

The Secretary General is the Alliance’s top international civil servant. He/she is responsible for steering the process of consultation and decisionmaking within the Alliance and ensuring that decisions are implemented.

“The Science for Peace and Security (SPS) Programme promotes dialogue and practical cooperation between NATO member states and partner nations based on scientific research, technological innovation and knowledge exchange. The SPS offers funding, expert advice and support to tailor-made, security-relevant activities that respond to NATO’s strategic objectives”.

Conflict intervention methods consist of the following: Conflict prevention, conflict management, conflict settlement, conflict resolution, conflict transformation, and conflict provention.

The humanitarian conception is an extension of the state responsibility approach to protect citizens based on the natural rights conception of human rights because it depends on “the right to intervene” or “duty to intervene” of the international community in countries with gross human rights violations. Even if this contradicts with the core principles of international relations (such as the state sovereignty, the prohibition of use of force against the territorial integrity, and non-interference in the domestic affairs of a sovereign country), the security of the state does not automatically mean the security of its citizens. Therefore, the correct option is B.

According to the Table 8.1, possible types of human security threats are as follows:

Economic security: Persistent poverty, unemployment

Food security: Hunger, famine

Health security: Deadly infectious diseases, unsafe food, malnutrition, lack of access to basic health care

Environmental security: Environmental degradation, resource depletion, natural disasters, pollution

Personal security: Physical violence, crime, terrorism, domestic violence, child labor

Community security: Inter-ethnic, religious and other identity based tensions

Political security: Political repression, human rights abuses.

Therefore, the correct option is D.

Security Dilemma is a situation in which actions taken by a state to increase its own security cause reactions from other states, which in turn lead to a decrease rather than an increase in the original state’s security. Therefore, the correct option is A.

Complex Interdependence is a theory developed by Keohane and Nye (1977) for explaining economic interdependence between states. The theory focuses on dependent relations between states in all dimension of security and underlines the importance of cooperation for international community under the international organizations and regimes. Furthermore, it assesses the high costs of military security in the face of institutionalization and cooperation for human security. Therefore, the correct option is A.

After the publication of this report, the UN requested a final report for human security from the Commission on Human Security. The Commission specified the priorities of human security as follows:

• Protecting people in violent conflict;

• Protecting people from the proliferation of arms;

• Supporting the human security of people on the move;

• Establishing human security transition funds for post-conflict situations;

• Encouraging fair trade and markets to benefit the extreme poor;

• Providing minimum living standards everywhere;

• According high priority to universal access to basic health care;

• Developing an efficient and equitable global system for patent rights;

• Empowering all people with universal basic education, through much stronger global and national efforts;

• Clarifying the need for a global human identity while respecting the freedom of individuals to have diverse identities and affiliations.

Therefore, the correct option is D.

The 21st century presents a new approach to security threats. Today scholars and politicians alike have been debating non-traditional security (NTS) threats, which are also known as nonmilitary threats, to better understand world politics and take the necessary measures to sustain and promote the international order. Among the critical NTS are environmental security, economic security, the security of food and water resources. Other NTS include migration, climate change, diseases and pandemics, social issues, human trafficking and drugs. Therefore, the correct option is E.