ULUSLARARASI GÜVENLİK

Critical Security Studies (CSS) is an umbrella term for a range of approaches which seek to challenge the orthodoxy of ‘traditional’ security studies. Critical approaches apply post-positivist perspectives such as critical theory and post-structuralism and change the referent object of security. Doğru cevap " A " dır.

Realism defines international relations in terms of power. The exercise of power by states toward each other is called power politics (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014). There are two main approaches of realism: classical realism that considers power politics in terms of egoism and neorealism, or structural realism, that explains power politics in terms of anarchy (Heywood, 2011). Doğru cevap " B " dir.

DÜZELTME HAKKINDA

Soruda tanımlama kısmında "and neorealism " ya da structural realism  ikincisini karşılıyor. Dolayısıyla gerekli düzeltmeyi yaptım. Seçenek doğru, " B " dir.

Morgenthau outlines the “six principles of political realism” as follows:
• Politics is governed by objective laws which have their root in human nature.
• The key to understanding international politics is the concept of interest defined in terms of power.
• The forms and nature of state power will vary in time, place and context but the concept of interest remains consistent.
• Universal moral principles do not guide state behavior, although this does not rule out an awareness of the moral significance of political action.
• Moral aspirations are specific to a particular nation; there is no universally agreed set of moral principles.
• The political sphere is autonomous (Heywood, 2011). Doğru cevap " C " dir.

Structural realism emphasizes four core elements of international politics:

• States are seen as rational actors and by far the most important actors in the
international system.
• The international system is anarchic; there is no international authority that can prevent the use of force between states.
• Each state cannot take its security for granted and thus, is responsible for ensuring its own survival, most notably through the nurturing of material capabilities.
• The balance of power (the formation of alliances with certain states to counter the threat of other states) is the defining mechanism that regulates the international system and explains war and peace. Doğru cevap " D " dir.

“Liberalism’s mentions on peace and international harmony. Liberals believe that the external behaviour of a state is crucially influenced by its political and constitutional make-up. This is reflected in a tradition of republican liberalism that can be traced back to Woodrow Wilson, if not to Kant. Doğru cevap " E " dir.

Critical Security Studies is an academic discipline within security studies which rejects mainstream approaches such as realism and neorealism. In May 1994, a small conference was held at York University in Toronto entitled Strategies and Conflict: Critical Approaches to Security Studies. Doğru cevap " A " dır.

Thinking about security in terms of sectors has widened the agenda of security. Buzan examines the dynamics of security in five sectors: military, political, economic, environmental and societal. Each sector is identified with specific types of interaction and determined by securitizing actors and referent objects. Doğru cevap " B " dir.

Since the late 1980s, major IR theories have been challenged by critical perpectives. Critical perspectives vary remarkably. The most prominent critical theories in IR are as follows:
• Marxism and Neo-Marxism
• Critical Theory
• Poststructuralism/Postmodernism
• Social constructivism
Doğru cevap " C " dir.

Postmodernism is an intellectual tradition that is based on the belief that truth is always contested and plural; sometimes summed up as ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ (Lyotard, 1984). Doğru cevap " D " dir.

Social constructivism focuses on the nature of norms, identity, and social interactions. The constructivist approach is based on the belief that there is no objective social or political reality independent of our understanding of it. Constructivists hold that these state identities are complex and changing, and arise from interactions with other states—often through a process of socialization (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014). Doğru cevap " E " dir.

The roots of realism can be traced back to ancient times. Chinese strategist Sun Tzu advised the rulers of states on how to survive in an era when the war had become a systematic instrument of power for the first time (Chatturvedi, 2005). In ancient Greece, Thucydides wrote on the Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.), focusing on relative power among the Greek city-states. Power is regarded as a zero-sum game. According to the zero-sum game, “the actors in the international system must deprive one another of their power in order to add it to their own” (Molloy, 2006).

The notion of national interest has underpinned foreign policy since the advent of the Westphalian system. As posited by Morgenthau, “objectives of a foreign policy must be defined in terms of the national interest” (Morgenthau, 1960). He defines the national interest “in terms of power” (1993). That means power is the ultimate result and cause of the national interest taking its roots from the will to power inherent in human nature. Whatever the ultimate aims of international politics, power is always the immediate aim. Therefore, international politics is a struggle for power (Morgenthau, 1993).

For realism, the state is the most important actor in the international system and is, therefore, the primary unit of analysis. The state, as an actor, must ensure its survival in a self-help situation. Survival becomes the first objective of the state.

Self-help refers to a state’s reliance on its own capacities and resources, rather than external support, to ensure security and survival. Security dilemma arises from the fact that a build-up of military capacity for defensive reasons by one state is always liable to be interpreted as aggressive by other states. The concept of relative gains refers to the position of states in relation to one another, reflected in the distribution of benefits and capabilities between and amongst them. Offensive realism - Defensive realism Offensive realism is a form of structural realism that portrays states as ‘power maximizers’, as there is no limit to their desire to control the international environment. Defensive realism is a form of structural realism that views states as ‘security maximizers’, placing the desire to avoid attack above a bid for World power

British scholar Susan Strange (1996) offers Structural Power Thoeory and defines it as “the power to decide how things shall be done, the power to shape frameworks within which states relate to one another, relate to people or relate to corporate enterprises”. She distinguishes between four primary power structures: • The knowledge structure, which influences actor’s beliefs, ideas or perceptions; • The financial structure, which controls access to credit or investment; • The security structure, which shapes defence and strategic issues; • The production structure, which affects economic development and prosperity.

Adler and Barnett (1998) emphasize the potential impact of institutions, values and identities even in the high politics of international security. The concept of security communities is an attempt to find a remedy for the insecurity of states in the international arena. It is thus related to the concept of collective security, in the sense that security communities aim to provide collective security for members

Having emerged in the 1980s, democratic peace theory is based on an assumption that there is an intrinsic link between peace and democracy; in particular, that democratic states do not go to war with one another. Relied on a Kantian logic, democratic peace emphasizes three core elements, namely republican democratic representation, and ideological commitment to human rights, and transnational interdependence

Key Concepts in Critical Security Studies

Referent Object: It is an object that is taken as the focus for analysis in security studies. As to this concept, there are two main approaches to the security: state-centric security (the state is the referent object) and human-centric approach (human is the referent object). Traditional Security Studies: It refers to Realist, Liberal, Peace Studies and Strategic Studies perspectives in the study of security. All of them prioritize the state as the referent object of security and focus on military threats to the security of the state. Broadening: The broadening security agenda refers to Barry Buzan’s sectoral analysis that the security agenda includes not only military sector issues but also political, economic, societal and environmental issues. Deepening: The state is not only the referent object of security but it also includes human individuals, institutions and groups. Positivism: It claims that social sciences can be built upon the same model as natural sciences. Scientific principles such as objectivity, verification/falsification, and generalization can adapt to the study of society. Post-Positivism: It rejects the idea that it is possible to analyze the natural world and the social world in the same way. There is no objective view (Peoples and Vaughan-Williams, 2010:4)

Type of Security: Examples of Main Threats

Food Security: Hunger, famine

Health Security: Lack of access to basic health care, infectious diseases

Environmental Security: Natural disasters, pollution

Personal Security:Physical violence, crime, terrorism

Community Security:Ethnic-religious based tensions

Political Security: Political repression, human rights abuses.

As for security, the world-system theory holds that “the existence of security in the world-system theory is based on the continuity of relations between the peripheral areas and the core areas. In other words, a change in resource distribution is viewed as a threat to security of the system” (Soltani and Yusoff, 2012).