ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TARİHİ - Deneme Sınavı - 11

The Reformation first started in the German lands in 1517 when Martin Luther, a student of the Renaissance, published his ‘95 Theses,’ a series of critiques of Catholic doctrine which soon spread to the rest of much of Europe. 

John Calvin was the person who organized the first ‘reformed’ church, later known as Calvinist, in Geneva in 1536. Calvin believed that the sovereignty of people was supreme and that they had a right to revolt against bad government.

Almost every European power took part in the Thirty Years' War, including the German principalities, France, Sweden, Spain, Bohemia, Poland, Denmark, Russia and the Holy Roman Empire. However, Japan is not one of the countries involved.

The world’s first recorded international peace treaty is generally accepted to be the Treaty of Kadesh, signed in the 13th century BC between the Egyptians and the Anatolian-based Hittites.

After the final defeat of Napoleon, the Holy Alliance and later the Quadruple Alliance were created. "B" is the correct option.

With the conference of Aixla-Chappelle in 1818, France was also brought into the Quadruple group, thus establishing the Quintuple Alliance. "C" is the correct option.

Among the great powers, it was Austria, which stood out as both the organizer and balancer of the system. In addition to this, monarchism, anti-nationalism, and anti-liberalism were the main fundamentals of the post-Vienna peace. The other sentences are correct. "B" is the correct option.

When the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman rule, the major powers were unaware of what collective action to take. It was evident that the Ottoman Empire was not included in the domain of the European Concert. However, this uprising could be a trigger for the other possible risks, like raising awareness. The others were direct threats as those countries all belonged to the Concert of Europe. "E" is the correct option.

After the revolutions of 1848, the major powers found themselves in an atomized state in which each state shifted to its own individual interest rather than compromise on a common interest that promised mutual gains from the existing status quo. "C" is the correct option.

Bismarck's System totally depended on isolating France. "A" is the correct option.

The weakest side of Bismarck’s complex alliance system was Bismarck himself. He had generated such a degree of control over both German domestic and foreign policy that only he knew the ties that bound such an intricate and delicate structure. His absence, it should have been evident, would be problematic to put it lightly. "D" is the correct option.

The spreading tide of Industrial Revolution also transformed the dynamics of the traditional state and the society it governed. Growing numbers of tradable merchandise created a class of investors and merchants, which weakened the older landed aristocracy’s hold on power. Yet apart from this new moneyed aristocracy, a new working class was also emerging. Though the traditional absolutist rule of kings still prevailed, society was dynamically changing. Initially, higher revenues from both domestic and international trade and taxes from increasing production increased kings’ capacity to arm themselves, better govern their realm, and fight wars of territorial acquisition. In the short run, therefore, the Industrial Revolution rocketed the economies of traditional states and transformed them into highly centralized ones. As monarchs made use of their recently acquired means of power for more centralized models of government, the first image of the nation-state in history began to emerge (Hobsbawm, 1962:27-53).

The reaction of the continental states to the American Revolution is noteworthy. In allying themselves with the insurgent colonies, both France and Spain welcomed the opportunity to even their odds with their archenemy, Britain. It should be noted, then, that neither France nor Spain or any other state in Europe saw the events in North America as revolutionary. The Declaration of Independence in 1776 was merely assumed as a crack in the politics of the British Empire, not a social upheaval of subjects against their kings; the role of the American bourgeoisie was neglected. Ratifying its constitution by 1791, the United States of America was declared as a federal republic, announcing a new type of sovereignty based upon the people rather than an absolute monarch. In the sight of cautious philosophers like Immanuel Kant, this was a promising achievement of humanity to determine his/her own will. In the sight of Europe’s bureaucratic monarchies, it was merely a welcomed blow to Britain’s might.

It took seven coalitions to beat back the French Empire born of the Revolution. By the end of 1814, four major powers (Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia) had joined an alliance to fight until Napoleon was defeated. The Treaty of Chaumont, signed in March 1814, was the major achievement of the anti-Napoleonic coalitions and paved the way for the conference in which post-revolutionary Europe would be forged.

Diplomacy means the conduct of affairs between states by official agents through peaceful means with several ends in mind: 

First, it facilitates communication between political leaders or states and other entities of world politics. 

Second, it facilitates the negotiation of agreements. 

Third, it serves to gather intelligence or information from host countries. 

Fourth, it minimizes the effects of frictions in international relations. 

Fifth, it symbolizes the concrete existence of international society.

Therefore, among the given information, Number IV is wrong, others are correct.

Colonialism means “control by one power over a dependent area or people". 

Absolutism refers to a “political doctrine and the practice of unlimited centralized authority and absolute sovereignty of a monarch".

Diplomacy means "the conduct of affairs between states by official agents through peaceful means". 

Balance of power refers to "a state of affairs in which no state predominates over others". 

Therefore, the correct answer is "B".

Feudalism represents "a pyramidal social formation built upon personal ties of loyalty in which power holders at any level depend on their capacity to mobilize resources, including military power". 

Diplomacy means "the conduct of affairs between states by official agents through peaceful means".

Colonialism means “control by one power over a dependent area or people".

Mercantilism refers to an “economic theory and practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation’s economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers”.

Therefore, the correct answer is "D".

During the reign of Louis XIV, royal government became more centralized and bureaucratic. All departments of government were relocated to Versailles, which became the headquarters of state administration, thus replacing Paris. The palace there became the center of Louis XIV’s absolutist empire. Seen as a continuation of Italy’s Renaissance, French artists and scientists were as effective and popular as Louis XIV’s armies, and the French language and thought were transmitted to every corner of the continent.

Therefore, the information given in Option E is wrong.

The Peace of Utrecht refers to a series of treaties that ended the War of the Spanish Succession. These were: 

Utrecht 

11 April 1713 – Treaty between France, Great Britain, Holland, Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy 

13 July 1713 – Treaty between Spain and Great Britain 

13 August 1713 – Treaty between Spain and Savoy 

26 June 1714 – Treaty between Spain and Holland 

Rastad and Baden 

6 March / 7 September 1714 – Treaty between France and Austria 

Madrid 

6 February 1715 – Treaty between Spain and Portugal 

15 November 1715 – Barrier Treaty between Holland, France and Austria 

(Spain and Austria finally concluded a treaty at The Hague in February 1720) 

The Congress of Vienna showed that every state, even France, had got at least part of what they wanted, and the collaboration that had united the anti-French bloc was no longer necessary.