ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TARİHİ

Ancient Greece (500 BC-100 BC demonstrated an early example of a state system, when many small Greek city-states such as Athens, Sparta, Corinth, or Ephesus established extensive relations and an informal means of discussing the
major issues of the day. With small populations and territories and a lack of institutions such as international law, diplomacy, or international organization, the Greek state system was instead based on a shared language, culture, and common religion (Jackson and Sorensen, 2013: 12). These are the basic features that most distinguish it from the modern international system established after the Peace of Westphalia.

After the defeat of the Western Roman Empire, a feudal state system came to dominate Western Europe until the 16th century. The traditional tribute-taking empire based on coercive means and devoted more to expansion than governance, so typical of ancient Rome or China, finally gave way to a system of divided authority characterized by feudal relations, city-states with much
independence, and urban alliances in which the Papacy played a leading role (Held, 1995: 78-79). This system was embodied in the Holy Roman Empire for centuries

One of the outcomes of the Utrecht Peace was the exclusive access Holland and Great Britain received to trade with certain Spanish ports and territories. Therefore, the correct choice is B.

In the beginning of the 13th century, there were hundreds of city-states on the Italian peninsula. Gradually absorbed by the more powerful ones, by the 14th century more than twenty cities had populations over 20,000 people (Merriman, 2010: 45). Since urban areas were far more prone to the spread of ideas, the Renaissance kicked off in cities such as Florence, Venice, Siena, and Milan. What
made it possible was the economic prosperity and social dynamism of city-states, polities that had grown rich and independent from trade in the Mediterranean and Black Sea since the 11th century (Merriman, 2010: 46). These trade routes increased international trade in the region and helped citystates create small-scale manufacturing. As a result, Italian merchants grew very wealthy. This also helped develop a sophisticated banking system in the city-states in the 14th and 15th centuries, thus further financing internal trade and international commerce (Merriman, 2010: 46). The most prominent among them, such as Florence, soon became central to financing monarchies and even
the papacy (Merriman, 2010: 46). These developments led to increasing urbanization, eroded the power of the nobility, and increased the influence of townsmen. Before long urban merchants enriched by commerce had become important to local political life and soon joined the ruling elite (Merriman, 2010: 49). These dynamic urban societies and new urban elites were more open to new ideas because of traders and immigrants. People from different regions came together in the Italian city-states to exchange culture, ideas, beliefs, and intellectual accumulation. Another critical link in this development was the conquest of Istanbul in 1453, which encouraged many Eastern scholars to flee to the Italian peninsula, bringing with them vast collections of ancient books and manuscripts. This in turn led to the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman political and philosophical approaches (Merriman, 2010: 56).

A new class of urban patriarch also came to dominate these cities with power and patronage. Rather than invade neighboring states and amass new territories, however, they used their wealth to encourage new arts, technologies, and political theories. There were many consequences of this approach: first, the city-states struggled to establish their independence from both the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire from the 13th through the 16th centuries; second, Italian political philosophers such as Marsiglio of Padua and Dante rediscovered
many of the old Roman and Greek texts. These texts helped them intellectually undermine the power of the papacy by arguing that the secular authorities not only ought to be separate from spiritual ones, but also reign supreme (Hinsley, 1986: 82-88; Skinner, 1978: 8-22).

Sovereignty a condition necessary for states in that they are not subject to any higher authority… Internally governments have been subject to conventional standards, and externally conditions may mean that governments are more or less free to act independently. A sovereign government is free to choose within the framework of these conventions and standards. The correct answer is B.

In feudal Europe, there were two types of peasants. Serfs were semi-free peasants, while there were completely free peasants. The correct answer is E.

Machiavelli believed politics was based on human action, rather than religious conviction or sentiment and did much to revive the Roman idea of virtue. According to him, religion and religious morals were fine insofar as they helped bolster a common moral code and keep the social peace. However, religion and religious morals should not prevent a prince (i.e. sovereign or ruler) from exercising his authority or acting in the interests of the state. Though he prescribed religion for the masses as a healthy thing, he proscribed it for princes. The correct answer is C.

The Reformation was a religious, political, and cultural revolution that shattered the Catholic world in the 16th century. It first started in the German lands in 1517 when Martin Luther, a student of the Renaissance, published his ‘95 Theses,’ a series of critiques of Catholic doctrine which soon spread to the rest of much of Europe. The correct answer is B.

Luther also translated the Bible into German, which also helped rapidly spread his ideas given the huge recent gains in the development of the printing press (Alcock, 2002: 126), which rapidly led to further divisions. Between 1517 and 1520, Luther’s followers printed over 300,000 of his writings, and his pamphlets were read in universities and by clerics who went on to spread his ideas to even larger audiences across Germany (Philpott, 2000: 226). By the mid-16th century, Lutheranism was firmly established in northern and eastern Germany (Alcock, 2002: 127).

What did Westphalia result in? How did it influence the international political system? First, it led to a modicum of religious toleration by reiterating the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, first annunciated at the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. Principalities and other states now had jurisdiction over issues related to religion, and no longer took their cues from the Holy Roman Empire on these matters (Holsti, 1991: 34). More importantly, Europe’s internal wars of religion were by and large over (excepting those against the Ottoman Empire) (Holsti, 1991: 38). Second, and more importantly, the Habsburg family which united Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and many territories in Italy was now divided, as the emperor renounced his right to provide support to Spain (Holsti, 1991: 34-35). It also spelled the end of the Holy Roman Empire as a foreign policy-making body. According to these treaties, “the pattern of international relations in Europe was drastically changed: over three hundred political entities were now entitled to conduct foreign relations (make alliances), and the Holy Roman Emperor could not employ force in the conduct of foreign policy, or even make alliances, without the consent of the individual members of the Empire” (Holsti, 1991: 35). These formed the bedrock of European diplomacy until the French Revolution (Holsti, 1991: 38; Merriman, 2010: 145).

Under the guidance of Gustav Adolph, Cardinal Richelieu, and Jules Mazarin, a peace was finally negotiated. The congresses of Münster and Osnabrück, the first of their kind, led to the signing of the Treaties of Westphalia, the first multilateral diplomatic gathering in Europe to end a regional war and build a new order. Among those present were “145 delegates representing 55 jurisdictions, including the Holy Roman Empire and all the major kingdoms except Great Britain, as well as significant duchies, margraves, landgraves, bishoprics, free cities, and imperial cities. The correct answer is A.

“The [Westphalian] model covers the period of international law from 1648 to 1945 (and some would say it still holds today). It depicts the emergence of a world community consisting of sovereign states which settle their differences
privately and often by force; which engage in diplomatic relations, but otherwise have minimal cooperation; which seek to place their own national interest above all others; and which accept the logic of the principle of effectiveness, that is,
the principle that might eventually makes right in the international world—where appropriation becomes legitimation” (Held, 1995: 86).

Hedley Bull explains international law as the body of binding rules between states and other actors in world politics (Bull, 2012: 122). However, without any sanctions or coercive power, international law is often suspected of not being effective. As Thomas Hobbes argued, “[w]here there is no common power, there is no law”

Diplomacy means the conduct of affairs between states by official agents through peaceful means with several ends in mind: • First, it facilitates communication between political leaders or states and other entities of world politics. • Second, it facilitates the negotiation of agreements. • Third, it serves to gather intelligence or information from host countries. • Fourth, it minimizes the effects of frictions in international relations. • Fifth, it symbolizes the concrete existence of international society.

The international system in the 17th and 18th centuries followed upon gains made in previous centuries. These were the increasing importance of state sovereignty and authority, the emergence of mechanisms such as the permanent
diplomatic representation, an increasing reference to international law, and the idea of striking a ‘balance of power’. In these centuries, the modern state system of today was being consolidated, and states tended not only to engage in conflicts but also to cooperate through increasing trade or by allying against common threats.

Mercantilism refers to an “economic theory and practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation’s economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers”. As a policy, it was developed in Western Europe between the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution and holds that states should increase their exports and decrease their imports. It was closely related to the evolution of the state-system of Europe insofar as it advanced a state-centered structure of international relations.

The age of absolutism is generally between 1660 and 1789, starting with the restoration of the English monarchy after the English Civil War and the personal rule of Louis XIV of France until the French Revolution.

An absolute ruler or monarch in the 17th and 18th century could make “law, dispense justice, create and direct a bureaucracy, declare war, and levy taxation according to his or her own will, without needing the formal approval of any other governing authorities” . As French King Louis XIV (1643-1715), the symbolic figure of absolutism, famously put it, “I am the state.”

Mercantilism refers to an “economic theory and practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century that promoted governmental regulation of a nation’s economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers” (“Mercantilism,” 2019). As a policy, it was developed in Western Europe between the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution and
holds that states should increase their exports and decrease their imports. It was closely related to the evolution of the state-system of Europe insofar as it
advanced a state-centered structure of international relations (Evans and Newnham, 1998: 321). Wallerstein argues that mercantilism in the 17th century was a policy of economic nationalism centered on strong trade balances and the acquisition of bullion (Wallerstein, 2011: 37-38). Implemented to establish strong and self-sufficient economies, the goal was to maximize exports and minimize the import of raw materials (Sander,2001: 94).