ULUSLARARASI İLİŞKİLER TEORİLERİ I - Deneme Sınavı - 9

Utilitarian philosophy assumes that the individual who works for his own utility, automatically works for the utility of community.

Jus ad bellum refers to the conditions under which States may resort to war or to the use of armed force in general.

Self-determination is the right of the people of a particular place to choose the form of government they will have.

American President George W. Bush, in 2001, identified the attack of Al-Qaeda as an attack to the democracy and human rights, and he also introduced the operation against Afghanistan with the concepts of “perpetual peace” (or infinite peace) and “infinite justice/enduring freedom”.

Covert operations aim to secretly fulfill their mission objectives without any parties knowing who sponsored or carried out the operation.

Normative theories, essentially are related with the subjects of philosophy and ethic. Perpetual peace approach of Kant and European federation idea of J. J. Rousseau were interesting examples for normative studies. Value is always an important element for the background of normative studies, and such theories placed the discussion of politics in the context of morality. Here, moral factors became evident and interests were expressed through moral and ethical dimensions or in the context of values related to ideology, morality and politics (Johari, 1985: 72).
However, normative theories rest on value preferences which cannot be tested or verified with factual experiments and this is an important difference from empirical/positivist theories. Moreover, they are not concerned with the proposition related to “what is” but “what ought to be, what should be” (Viotti and Kauppi, 1993:5;
Rosenau, 1993, 25; Frost, 1986: 15).
Empirical theories intensify on the real reasons of relations between statesmen and foreign policy. Diplomatic history introduces ample proofs for this perspective. From time to time, this contention is conducted in the axis of idealism-realism. However, the traces of the elements of value and norm would be seen in the studies carried out in the framework of realism as well. Therefore, this subjective factor could not be completely eliminated in empirical theories too. Empirical political scientists sometimes use the normative/philosophical concepts, even if they adopt empirical facts. In this context, coinciding theory and fact, inevitably, demonstrates the necessities that the empirical theories at the same time should utilize analytical approaches.

According to these information the correct answer is option E.

Universal law, natural law, universal peace, universal morality, universal human rights are not accepted by them. Cicero (BC 106-43) who is an important philosopher in the western thought stated that true law is a law in coincidence with the nature. Cicero pointed out that a single justice depending on single law is valid for all society. For him, if there was not justice in the nature, it would not be known as the concept of justice.

We cannot be freed from its obligations by senate or people, and we need not look outside ourselves for an expounder or interpreter of it.

“What Cicero is ultimately saying here and elsewhere is that there is the law of nature, and there is human nature. These are of necessity harmonious with each other (and, ultimately, the same thing) because both reflect the will of a benevolent Supreme Being who creates and governs the universe. To act in accord with human nature, human beings must exercise right reason (recta ratio). The purpose of philosophy is to assist people to achieve right reason-a real and distinct level of cognitive function where emotional and egoistic thinking gives way to virtue, morality, piety (or sense of the sacred), and intellectual and social humility.”

In this sense, the correct answer is option C.

Kant (1724-1804), who is the best known representative of the cosmopolitan understanding, discusses ethics and reason in his studies, as well, and he takes on hand the concepts of peace and war as the basic phenomena of social structure. According to him, an individual has the freedom to choose right, ethic and moral, and his behaviors are not determined in advance. But, he has responsibilities and obligations to perform and to obey to the ethical laws accepted as right by universal reason. The ethical laws are known to individuals, and they are universally obligatory
rules for all humankind. The universal dimension of Kantian ethics is accepted as fundamental in IR. In Kantian idealism, there is an understanding of cosmopolitan international society which is composed of individuals, states and other actors adopting ethical principles. Right reason which has a different character transcends the law made by states, necessitates to fulfill states’ responsibilities stemming from universal law. This indicates the way toward the state of perpetual peace. A world federation formed by peaceful states was introduced by Kant as a recipe to solve the security demands of states. According to these information, the correct answer is given in the option D.

The approach of social contract is another important approach which should be regarded for normative thought. According to Locke and Rousseau, by forming a higher authority, individuals would accept voluntarily to leave their certain rights to preserve their freedoms and security (freedom of life). Social contract theory depends on the assumption that the individuals might voluntarily bind themselves to the certain principles. In this sense, the correct answer is given in option B.

Jus ad bellum refers to the conditions under which States may resort to war or to the use of armed force in general. The prohibition against the use of force amongst States and the exceptions to it (self-defence and UN authorization for the use of force), set out in the United Nations Charter of 1945, are the core ingredients of jus ad bellum. According to these, the correct answer is option D.

Normative theories, adopt human being’s freedom and capability to determine the outside world rather than emphasizing the influence of international structure and national interest. In this sense, normative theories have features of being voluntarist and eclectic. They look like predictive and explanatory theories rather than being deterministic theories. But, the propositions of normative theories cannot be tested or
verified by facts. However, these theories are known as educational and instructional theories. According to these, the correct answer is E.

Therefore, it is frequently observed that ethical norms are employed to excuse foreign policies. According to Lenin, brother nations and parties have responsibilities to support
each other. Similarly, according to the former Soviet Union, communist countries had special responsibilities for saving the weak block members. In this sense, the correct answer is option B.

Self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a jus cogens rule (compelling law/peremptory norm) binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter’s norms. It states that a people, based on respect for the principle of equal rights and fair equality of opportunity, have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no interference. In other words, the right of the people of a particular place to choose the form of government they will have. According to this, the correct answer is option A.

The principle of non-intervention involves the right of every sovereign State to conduct
its affairs without outside interference; …“the principle forbids all States or groups of States to intervene directly or indirectly in the internal or external affairs of other States” and that “a prohibited intervention must accordingly be one bearing on matters in which each State is permitted, by the principle of State sovereignty, to decide freely. Intervention is wrongful when it uses methods of coercion in regard to such choices, which must remain free ones.” In this sense, the correct answer is E.

According to Mervin Frost (1986: 82-83), many issues in IR are normative in content and/ or introduced with some normative notions. Could the states justify waging war? What are the normative constraints for states to abide? What are the rights and obligations of states trying to be neutral in a war? Should the states have nuclear weapons? Could the nuclear weapons ethically be advocated? Is deterrence policy legitimate?... and so on. According to these questions, the correct answer is option D.

regimes

Regime is thought as a result of consent of states and the limited surrender for independent decision making authority.

implementing

the increase in pollution