ULUSLARARASI POLİTİKA

One of the most important approaches to the classification of rights belongs to Georg Jellinek. This classification includes negative status rights, positive status rights, and active status rights. The correct answer is A.

Negative status rights emphasize the restrictions of states and personal immunity. In other words, the conceptualization of negative rights, which point to a protected area in which states could not intervene in any way, constituted the basis for preventing the state’s tyranny. The correct answer is B.

The World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993, emphasized issues such as the universal issue of human rights, the indivisibility of rights and women’s rights, as well as being a first conference in the post-Cold War era. The correct answer is C.

John Locke, one of the most important figures of English enlightenment, tried to limit the state by declaring life, liberty, and property as intangible rights. The correct answer is A.

Founding fathers played an important role in establishing confederacy and forming a constitution in the United States. Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, John Adams, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington are called as the founding fathers. The British philosopher and jurist Jeremy Bentham is not one of them. The correct answer is C.

Regulations were made to forbid trade of slaves in the Congress of Vienna of 1815 for the first time. The correct answer is D.

The Helsinki Final Act includes regulations about human rights, and Soviet and the US are involved as parties. The regulations on democracy and respect for human rights in the Helsinki Final Act was signed under the Conference of Security and Cooperation in Europe, which would later be the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. The correct answer is E.

International non-governmental organizations such as Freedom House, Doctors Without Borders, Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have an undeniable precaution in particular on the international disclosure of widespread human rights violations and the transfer of information, including human rights protection mechanisms, to local populations. The correct answer is D.

As it is evident from its name, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights ensures the protection of human rights universally, in other words, it includes common principles to be achieved universally by the humanity. The correct answer is B.

Initially led by names such as Hedley Bull, Martin Wight Adam Watson and R. J. Vincent, the English School is trying to understand the nature of relations between states with the help of the concept of International Society. The correct answer is E.

First of all, it is an important starting point to
question what the concept of the right itself means
and whether is possible to have a common definition
of a right on all humanity. The sources of rights, how
to classify different rights, and to what extent rights
are universal stand as important questions that must
be discussed in human rights theory. In addition to
these, there is a wide debate about the conditions of
respect for human rights and the causes of human
rights violations in the literature.
The question of what the source of rights is has
been discussed, in particular, in the literature of
law, from past to present. In this context, it is often
argued that a source of rights is the law of nature.
The acquisition of human rights together with the
birth of man has had a broad philosophical support,
especially by social contractors. However, there are
other explanations with regard to the source of
rights. In this line, a number of names, especially
Bentham and Hume, have been advocates of
positive law, maintain that human-beings rather
than natural law create rights. (Cranston 1983,
3-4; Freeman 2012, 32-33; Vincent 2010, 78)

According to these information, the phrase given in option C is not an explanation about source of human rights. So, the correct answer is C.

The World Conference on Human Rights,
held in Vienna in 1993, emphasized issues
such as the universal issue of human rights,
the indivisibility of rights and women’s
rights, as well as being a first conference in
the post-Cold War era. Namely, the correct answer is given in option B.

Human rights have been expressed in various
circles from ancient Greece to Rome and from
institutional belief systems to non-institutional
belief systems. This is because human rights have
been thought as a common research subject to
philosophy and theology. Aristotle’s and Plato’s
emphasis on the concept of right, the Stoic’s
emphasis on the common values of humanity in
the framework of cosmopolitanism, or underlining
some moral values, especially compassion, in some
interpretations of beliefs such as Christianity,
Judaism and Islam, might be related to human
rights in one way or another. (Ishay 2004, 23-25;
James 2007, 7-10; Vincent 2010, 39). However,
human rights gain its present meaning throughout
the modern times. It is the result of a nearly three
centuries of struggle that started with the English Revolution and continued with the American and French Revolutions. All in all, these struggles
have been aimed to restrict the monarchies with
unlimited powers. Revolutionary developments towards
fundamental rights occurred in England in the
17th century. In this period, the existence of
some untouchable rights was vigorously spoken,
and these fundamental rights were defended
against the authorities of that time. The precise
establishment of the parliamentary to control
the British monarchy and the limitation of the
monarch’s authority undoubtedly constituted a
major break in the political history. Although the first efforts to establish
fundamental rights pointed to the 17th century, the
widening and deepening of the rights have spread
over many years. However, it was required to wait
for the 19th century to build mass democracies
through which political rights are guaranteed. However, the development and expansion of positive status rights have been more painful and
prolonged than others. Undoubtedly, the socialist
movement that became more widespread in the
1848 revolution, the Chartist movement, and the
aftermath, laid the groundwork for the emergence
of the Welfare state. According to these, the wrong phrase is given in option E.

The internationalization of human rights is the
result of a long period of time. In this context, the
first transnational attempts are some regulations
concerning the law of war. Some efforts to tackle
intergovernmental relations through international
legal arrangements and organizations have been
shaped by The Hague Conventions and the Geneva
Protocol. Undoubtedly, all these arrangements
served as an important cornerstone in the formation
of the law of war. With these arrangements, it
was aimed to protect the civilians and rules to
be followed in the war based on the jus in bello
principle within the framework of just war theory
(Abele 2011; Brown 2006, 694; Nabulsi 1999, 25).
In addition to all these, for the first time, in the
Congress of Vienna of 1815 regulations were made
to forbid trade of slaves, and similarly, the Slavery
Convention of 1926, and afterwards the League of
Nations had strictly forbidden the trade of slaves
and slavery itself (Brown 2006, 694). So, the correct answer is given in option D.

The mention and appreciation of human
rights in international texts are largely followed by
post-1945 era. In the post-World War II period,
the agony of societies, especially the genocide,
brought with it a number of measures to ensure
that similar conditions would not occur in the
future. Namely, the correct answer is C.

The mention and appreciation of human
rights in international texts are largely followed by
post-1945 era. In the post-World War II period,
the agony of societies, especially the genocide,
brought with it a number of measures to ensure
that similar conditions would not occur in the
future. Undoubtedly, international organizations,
especially the United Nations, played a key role in
this framework. Certain items mentioned in the
Charter of the United Nations and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights of the United
Nations, as historical documents, can be considered
as crucial documents signed during this period.
The Nuremberg and Tokyo courts, which were also
set up to try war criminals, are an important step
towards preventing genocide in this period (Brown
2006, 696; Clapham 2007, 33-35). According to these, The Nuremberg and Tokyo courts were set up to try war criminals, are an important step towards preventing genocide. So, the correct answer is A.

The importance which human rights have
gained in the international arena is also the cause
and consequence of a new form of sovereignty.
In this framework, the absolute sovereignty,
which is attributed to Bodin and Hobbes, has
lost its relevancy today (Philpott 1995, 355-357). So, the correct answer is given in option A.

With the growing impact of globalization, the
borders of the state have become less visible
which causes a decrease in the role of the
nation-states and which leads the emergence
of non-state actors as political actors. Namely, the correct answer is E.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
are units of people who came together
voluntarily toward a specified objective
without a citizenship restriction, which means
that NGOs’ members do not belong to a
particular country, and people can participate
in NGOs from anywhere in the world. According to this, the correct answer is B.

Human Rights
Watch is also a non-governmental human rights
organizations, which is therefore based on nonprofit and voluntarily participants. Human Rights
Watch was established in 1978, it is well-known
its impartial reporting, effective use of media,
and cooperation with local human rights groups
to protect and advance human rights all over the
world (Human Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.
org/about, accessed 15 November 2017). The
organizations have approximately 400 staff members
from various part of the world acting voluntarily
toward the goals of Human Rights Watch which is
an active player in the field by publishing more than
100 reports and briefings each year to infer human
rights conditions in roughly 90 countries (Human
Rights Watch, https://www.hrw.org/about,
accessed 15 November 2017). Its achievements also
come from its effective use of media through which
Human Right Watch makes known human rights
violations as well as developments of one part the
world to the other, and thus gains popularity and
relatedly support from people. According to these information, the phrase given in option E can not be said about Human Right Watch.